How to write a research proposal?

A research proposal can be thought of as an intellectual outline of what you intend to do, why it should be done, how you will do it, what you expect  to be the results  and  how you  will interpret your results  when  you finally set out to do your project. It is in effect a con tract between  you  and  your supervis or, therefore when it is approved? it simply means  that the lecturer has  given 
their best  judgment and  that the approach  to the resea rch is reasonable and likely to yield anticipated results. A clearly done proposal  will enable
you to complete yo ur project on time. A fuzzy, vag ue or weak proposal  will Save for a few vari ations, a typical research proposal will basically consist of the following components?

•    The title
•    Introduction
•    Topic area
•    Research  ques tion
•    Importance to knowle dge
•    literature review
•    A review of previous researches
•    Any preliminary work you had done on the same topic
•    Methodology
• Involves research design, sampling techniques, data collection methods, analytical techniques to be employed, how the data will be interpreted.
•    Expected results
•    Budget
•    Bibliography( references)

Let us now take a closer look at how these areas are important and in what perspective they should be used.

1. The introduction

Topic area

A properly chosen title gives  a good  clue as to what the paper is all about but it is not exhaustive. It should therefore be followed with an introduction which is strong enough to vividly bring out the gist  of the resea rch paper. It should be able to provide a brief overview of what the paper is all about, using as  few words as  poss ible, to enable the reader to determine if the research is relevant  or not. Research question(s)

It is important that you go right to the topic once it is established. Tell the reader the specific topic you will be addres s ing  as  well as  yo ur intended approach  and  finally let them know what they  will learn from the paper. Importance of the research Let it be known how relevant the whole study is to modern knowledge, how does it relate to similar work done before and why it should be supported or funded, whichever is desirable. Sample res earch  ques tions  and  a brief introduction to a resea rch paper;

• This research project seeks to explore the impact of power wrangles in African countries on the economies of the countries involved. In particular, it seeks to explain the extent to which regional organizations have failed to help out the member countries caught up in such situations.

• Leadership has for a long time been a thorn in the flesh of amajority of African states. Power doesn’t easily change hands in Africa. It doesn’t matter how well planned and executed the election might be, somehow one way or the other there will always be a disgruntled leader somewhere who will find fault with the whole process. According to Bradley (1999), power seems to be more intoxicating than the most potent of wines.

2. Literature review

Literature review is aimed at providing conceptual frame work to enable the reader to better understand the research questions. It is geared towards demonstrating how well the researcher understands and appreciates the diversity and breath of work that relates to what you are doing. These will include theories, models, assumptions, studies and methodologies that could also be an integral part of your work. Literature review also serves to unravel the gaps in the knowledge that need to be plugged thereby appropriately positioning your work to fit in and be relevant to the pool the existing of knowledge.

3. Methodology

Research design

Should be able to clearly explain to the reader how you intend to carry out the research, the methods you intend to employ and why they are relevant to your project. You could also seek to explain why you are not using widely known methods? the reasons could be financial or convenience.

Data collection

Briefly describe  the  instruments  you  intend  to use  in  collecting  your  data and  how  well  they  fit  into  your  resource  availability,  time  frame  and budget. This should help to detect flaws in the plan before they come back to haunt you when you are already started.

Data analysis

Data analysis will give an insig ht into the statistical, emp irical and  any other techniques  you intend to use in manipulating  the data in order  to come up with the  information you require to answer   the research questions.

Interpretation

It is vital to know  how  the  anticipated  results will be interpreted with due consideration to the possible range of outcomes. The different ranges of results could present a whole new interpretation of the results and therefore they need to be properly factored in.

4. Expected results

The expected res ults  provide a connection between the data analysis and the poss ible outcomes  to the theory and  the research  qu es tions initially formulated. In a nut shell, it summa rizes the significance of

5. Bibliography

A bibliograp hy is  basical ly a list of all  works  r elevant to your research t hat you might find  useful during the compilation. The references are lis ted alphabetically at the tail end of t he research  paper.  Let’s now look at the dos  and don’ts  when writing  a res earch paper.

The dos
·    Make  sure you  paper has  a profess ional outlook.
·    Make  it as  interes ting  as  possible.
·    Ensure that it comes  out as  informative as  possib le.
·    Write in a way that is easy to read

·    Make use of headings and sub-headings to make your work look organ
·    Include a table of content.
·    Use simple and easy to understand language.
·    Your arguments should be well constructed.
·    Conduct a thorough check of your spelling, grammar and typos.
·    Adopt a relevant referencing format.

The Don’ts
·    Repeat yourself
·    Use an over simplistic language
·    Try to impress your readers by using big words
·    Digress unnecessary
·    Use words whose meaning you are not so sure of

Annotated Bibliography

Simply put, an annotated bibliography is a summa ry or a brief analysis of sources used  in researching a particular subject. Writing an annotated bibliography can be an isolated assig nment or it could be a part of a larger resea rch project.

Purpose of an annotated bibliography

• To evaluate available materials for a particular topic
• To examine and sort out sources for research
• To offer an overview of sources  that may be helpful  to others researching  the same topic
• To gain  insights  from  the  available  literature before developing your  own  research ideas To demonstrate the quality and depth of the reading you have done for your research

Components of an annotated bibliography

• Provide full bibliographic information of the sources
• Brief description of the author’s background Summarize the content
• Identify the core arg ument
• Offer a statement of the types of conclusions drawn
• Indicate the relevance and usefulness of the source to your research.

Arrange the sources alphabetically, using MLA or APA style as specified by your instructor, and then write a five-to-ten sentence blurb (short description) summarizing each source.

Sample Annotation
Sample Annotation
Gregory, Mann. `Parents Influence is Limited. ` The Chicago Morning News 4 Feb.1962: 27A. Print. In this editorial, Gregory  first claims  that people are too quick to blame  a child’s parents  if the child does  som ething  wron g. In fact, he says, parents  might even  enjoy pointing  the finger  at other parents  who have a child in trouble. Howeve r, Greg ory tells  us, once he had his own children, he became  more humble and  realized that no matter how`good` parents  are, children s till do things  that are `bad` and ag ainst the `rules` that guided how they  were raise d. This leads  him to an example: a so ng  by Margin Gaye,  sugges ting  that parents  should s top trying  to mold children `like their own  piece of clay.` Finally, Grego ry that they  are the ultimate influence on their children’s lives.

Writing a winning academic essay made easy

Essays are common  class room  as signments  used to  test your knowledge as well as your writing skills. A great essay will follow some basic rules in addition to fulfilling your institutions requirements on  essay writing.

To many students, writing an essay can pose several challenges. As such most   students end up with poor or average essays.You  can however  make  your av erage  essay  a great  essay.

1. This is how Choose your topic wisely. Sometimes you may not have a choice about thetopic as it may have been decided by the requirements but if you do, choose a topic that is simple, interesting to you and current.Prepare.
2. Think about everything you will  need  and  put  things down  onpaper as they come to you. What  type of essay is best suited to your personality, is it a persuasive, argumentative, descriptive essay etc.
3. Create an outline to make your work organized and keep your audience in mind.
4. Devote sufficient time to writing a great introduction and thesis statement.
5. The body section should be used to present your arguments. Each paragraph should consist of one well supported idea. You should ensure a logical and a smooth transition from one idea to the other and one paragraph to the next.
6. Write a conclusion that sums up your argument and calls your audience to action.Edit and proofread your work. 
7. Remove sentences that are repeated andthose that do not make sense. Correct spelling mistakes, typos and grammar. You can have a friend read your work and critique it.

Following  these  simple rules will greatly improve your essay. It is important tostart writing your essay at the earliest possible moment without waiting for a“moment of inspiration”. Ideas will flow better when you start writing not before.

Remember that you will edit your essay afterwards.Writing an essay introduction The introduction  of  your essay will determine whether  the  reader  continues reading the rest of the essay or not, whether your audience gets a positive or negative  impression  of  your  essay.

A good introduction  should  grab  the reader’s attention and give them an idea of your objective.
It gives  your  reader a point of entry to your essay.

Attention grabber An  introdu ction beg ins  with an orienta tion which is  a gener al discussion 
of yo ur topic that moves  to a very specific s tatement of the core argument  also  known  as  the thesis  s tatement. An attention grabbings tatement is oftentimes  used  to draw the reader’s  interest. Here are

• Use a  remarkable but accurate statement that may or may not be new to your reader. This sentence should be elaborated by a sentence or two.
• Use a relevant story that illustrates the point you are maki ng. The story  should  be short and appropriate so be careful.
• Dramatize the central issue by a key example, quotation (Bring theissue to life).
• Avoid long winded expositions and instead let the reader know what you are going to discuss without doing so.
• Use  correct  grammar  and  stay  away  from  slang,  complex sentences  and difficult vocabulary.Keep in mind that your reader may be having many other essays to go through.

Thesis statement
A thesis statement basically a state what  is your paper is saying/proving. It  is your main point or unifying message. This is where you stick your neck out as you stake a claim/assertion. You  can   adjust it as you look at examples,evidence, statistics, expert testimony facts and figures etc.
Example:
“Dropout rates as high as 42% show that affirmative action programs bringing disabled students into national universities have not worked.”
“Although many affirmative action students drop out, those who graduate often have professional careers and serve as role models for other disabled students.” Remember,  a   good  introduction
should:

•    Open the main issues of the question
•    Indicate the way the question will be addressed
•    Outline how the essay is structured
•    Offer a statement of the types of conclusion to be drawn.

Finally, make it easy to transit seamlessly from your introductory paragraph to the body.

Paper Outline

This is a general plan of how information will be presented in your paper. For some papers, all you need is to jot down the main points so that you do not forget any important element as you write. However, for many other papers, you will find it useful to create an outline to help organize your
ideas into a rational paper. There are different kinds of outlines namely:

•    Scratch outline
•    Topic outline

Scratch outline as the name suggests is a string of notes single words or phrases written down with the purpose of refreshing the memory during the writing process.Topic outline is the most commonly used kind of outline. It consists of words or phrases that are numerically arranged to show order as
well as relative importance of the information.
Example:

Title: Career as a Police Officer

I.  Financial aspect

A.   Disadvantages
1.    Low pay
2.    No opportunity to make extra income
B.   Advantages
1.    Job Security
a.    Permanent employment
b.    Attractive retirement benefits
2.    Potential for success in business or politics after retirement

II.  Social aspect
A.   Disadvantages
1.    Limited social interactions
2.    Unpredictable transfers difficult for family
3.   Discipline often wearisome

Sentence Outline: In this kind of outline, each heading is a complete sentence.
Example:

Title: Career as a Police Officer

I.     Financial considerations are a big factor when choosing a career

A.   There are several disadvantages to a career in the police department
1.    The pay is low compared to other civilian jobs
2.    There is no opportunity to make extra income

B.   There are however some appealing advantages
1.    Job security is at its peak
a.    This is permanent employment
b.    The likelihood of being fired are minimal
c.    The retirement benefits are attractive
d.    Promotions are slow but steady

2.    There is a high potential for success in business or politics after retirement

II.    The social aspect should also be put into considerations
A.   The most apparent disadvantages include:
1.     social interactions are usually more restricted
2.    Unpredictable transfers are generally difficult for family
3.    The strict discipline is often wearisome

B.    The advantages however outweigh the disadvantages
1.    This career can be very fulfilling if one is fitted for the job
2.    There numerous opportunities to travel and see different places
3.    An annual paid leave is very appealing

Outline Form
Numbering  lettering,  indention,  punctuation and other aspects of  formal outlines  adhere  to  specific conventions.The numbering  and  Indention should be consistent throughout. Below is a typical form of sentence and Main statement

I.  ……………………………………… (Use roman numerals for key headings)
A.  ………………………………………….. (A capital letter for 1st subhead)
1.   ………………………………………………. (Use Arabic numeral for 2nd subhead)
2.   ……………………………………………….
a.   ……………………………………….. (Use small letters for the 3rd subhead)
b.   ………………………………………..
1)   …………………………………. (Use Arabic numeral with parenthesis for 4th subhead)
B.   ……………………………………………………..
II.         ……………………………………………………………

Do not endeavor to complicate your outline. Two levels of subheads are usually sufficient  for  short papers while there’s  hardly any need to go beyond the third subhead for longer papers.

Read more article: Tips for writing your final draft

Tips for writing your final draft

Impressing an admission officer with your application essay is not easy. However, here are some tips that will go a long way into improving your chances.

• Be creative. You can bring  to life even the dullest of topics by being creative. You can begin your essay with an appropriate quote or an anecdote but you must be careful that it fits flawlessly into the rest of you  essay. 

• Take time to write a great introduction. The introduction gives  you the opportunity to make the first impression. As such, your introduction should be well thought, clear and should not appear to be hastily written. You must grab the interest of the admission  officers  and possibly  raise ques tion in their min ds  that will make them want  to read further.

• Your admission essay must fit together. Make sure that the body paragraphs fit your introduction. You must not jump from one idea to the other in a haphazard manner and neither should you try to cram everything into your essay. This will only give your essay an appearance of being scattered. Furthermore, the admission committee understands that the essay can only contain snippets of who you are.

• Be Lively. Your essay must be interesting to read. Give your audience details that allow them to clearly see the setting. Use names where possibl as their use give the essay a human feel. Use of imagery will also heighten the reader’s interest since your experiences feature prominently as supporting details.

• Be Yourself. The admission essay is about you, your feelings, how you think, and your response to various happenings. How did you respond when you won/didn’t win the basketball competition? What does that reveal about you? The way your mind works is what distinguishes you from everybody else and you need bring that out.

• Portray a pleasant personality. College is a place where you are required to interact with other students as well as the faculty and staff. Find a way in your essay of showing that you are easy to get along with.

• Honesty the best policy. It is not necessary to overstate achievements or invent events that did not happen. Just use the truthful, seemingly unremarkable experiences creatively to bring out your strongest personality traits

• Avoid big words. “Uninhibited wits  like Mort Sahl may excel  in derogating much  that is  sacrosanct to the American bourgeois. These untrammeled iconoclasts are securing an ever-burgeoning following among the intelligentsia…” yawn, yawn!

• Revise and then revise some more. Go through your paper again and again and correct any mistakes you might find. Make sure your essay is free from  spellings,  punctuations, grammar  errors.  If  you  are  unsure  of  the meaning of a word, use the dictionary. You can also give your draft to others who can offer some critique.

• Give your writing a break. Spend time away from your draft essay and determine  the changes  you would wish to make. Come back later and look at it with a fresh eye.

 Read more this article: Writing a College Application essay

Writing a College Application essay

The prospect of writing a college admission essay is  fraught  with anxiety. This is
beca use this single  activity can make or  break your chances of making it to a
college of  your choice.  The  following tips are sugge sted  to ease the pain. 3 steps
are recommended:

1. Brainstorming

This step is a journey of self discovery whose aim is to bring to the fore your
accomplishments, strengths, struggles, victory over challenges, passions, adhering
philosophy and dreams. These are to be synthesized into distinguishing
attributes that can be presented in your essay to set you apart from the
hundreds of applicants. Below are some questions to guide you:
Are there some notable accomplishments in your life? These need not to
be  just  the  ones you’ve  been  recognized  for  but  even commonplace
stuff can be important if placed in the context of your life.

• Do you have any unique attribute
• Is there some challenging moments in your life that shaped your perspective?
• Consider struggles, victories and defeats. What was your response?
• What are your favorite books, movies and how have they influenced your life?
• What are you passionate about?
• What activities have you participated  in  that espouse values  sought out by the institution?
• What is your guiding principle?
• What are your long-term goals and how does the college fit into these?

Du ring this process,  you can  se ek in put  from  family, friend s and people who  know
you as  well as   reading sample admission essays.

2. Drafting your essay

Having gone through the brainstorming stage, you now have a better idea
of the elements you want to incorporate into your essay. Here are some
things to focus on and others to avoid

Focus on:

• Strength of personality and not on things you have done
• Finding patterns and connections; for example does your election as the editor for the high school magazine and your achievement at the state essay writing competition reflect on your passion for 
• Selec ting  a  topic  that  allows  you  to  combine  your  prominent personal  attributes and  qualities  into  a  sound   paper  while  addressing your aspiration  to be admitted into the particular institution.
• Provide evidence how you will fit into the institution’s environment. Avoid
• Repeating information provided elsewhere in your application 
• Jokes and being funny unless you must.
• Listing weaknesses unless you are willing to explain how they make you better suited for admission.
• Controversial topics unless you acknowledge counter arguments
• Topics that will turn off people
• Lying or trying to carve the image of supermanIt is prudent to allocate sufficient time for the 2 processes above.

Quality in Academic Writing Is it just song and dance?

All online academic paper writing companies (wi thout exemp tion) promi se to

offer c ustom essays,  resea rch papers, e tc, that are of t he high est  quality. We can 

get into  reas ons why ma ny do  not live  up to expectations but let’s focus on w hat

real  quality academic writing is all about so that we can spot a con a mi le away 

before get ting ripped off.

The ques tion that needs to be asked therefore is: can the quality of an academic

paper be determined before you get that failing grade?  What  should you look for

when you receive your paper from the  paper writing service of choice?

While the checklist below does not guarantee you a passing grade, it

gives you a very accurate idea of whether you are getting your money’s

worth. If you weigh your paper against it and find that it deviates widely

from the checklist, chances are that your paper is poorly written, rushed

1.  Following tutor’s instructions: All writing guides  in the world are not a

substitute for your tutor/lecturer’s instructions. Your  paper should strictly

seek  to fulfill all

the requiremen ts handed over by the examining authority. If a grading rubric is

provided then care should be taken to follow it to the letter.

2.  Organization and structure: The paper you present should be neat as

this would appeal to the reader’s eye. Basically most academic papers are

structured in a similar manner. The most common structure for essays and

term papers is

•    Abstract (optional)

•    Introduction

•    Bo dy paragra ph s

•    Conclusion

•    Re ferences

•    Appendix (optional)

In the same way,    research papers, dissertations and theses follow a general

structure as follows:

•    Abs tract

•    Introduction

•    Literature review

•    Methodology

•    Analysis

•    Resul ts

•    Discussion

•    Conclusion

•    List of sources

•    Appendix (optional)

2.   The  Introduction: A great paper starts with… duh… a great

introduction. This  is  the

point of entry  to your paper. A good introduction should:

•    Open the main issues of the question

•    Indicate the way the question will be addressed

•    Outline how the essay is structured

•    Offer a statement of the types of conclusion to be drawn.

3.   Coherence: The most important  aspect  of the body of any paper is

clarity of ideas (coherence) and smo oth transition from one idea to the

next. Poor quality papers are incoherent and difficult to read.

4.  Paragraphs that support the central argument: Another sign of a

quality paper is that the body paragra phs support the thesis  statement one

after the other. Paragraphs that have  a vag ue relationship with the main

arg ument of the paper are an indication of poor quality.

5.  In text citations and referencing: It is paramount to give credit to the

sources  you

use  in yo ur paper. Whether you qu ote any author word  by word or  just 

para phrase an idea  from ot her literary works, you  are r equired  to

document yo ur so urces  within the body of your text (in  text ci tation  )

and includ e full citation at  the  end of y our tex t. Th ere are  different

styles of documenting sources such as APA, MLA and Chicago/Turabian

among others. A good quality paper will adhere strictly to the chosen

formatting guide. Inconsistencies when documenting sources are a sign of a

Similarly, when listing down the sources at the end of the paper, this should

be done according to the particular formatting style. Additionally the full

bibliographic information should be presented whenever possible.

6.  Grammar and language: Poor grammar and incorrect use of language is

a major giveaway in academic paper writing. Typos and run-on sentences

will spoil even the well researched paper. Other tutors and professors will

give a failing grade to papers characterized by poor grammar run-on

sentences and typos. These indicate lack of thoroughness. As such, papers

should be proofread carefully and all sentences that make no sense or are

difficult to read rewritten.

7.  Conclusion: It is easy to give the least attention to your conclusion.

However your conclusion is meant to tie everything together in support of

your main argument or thesis statement. Here you can call for action and

give recommendation if appropriate. You may also open room for more

research in the same times. A conclusion is not supposed to merely be a

summary of your body. Neither are you to

introduce anything new that has not been covered in your text.

8.  Credibility of sources: The sources you use in writing your paper will say a

lot about the quality of your research. It is important to use authority sources.

Newspapers, magazines and some historical books, government and

organizational websites are good primary sources while journals, books are

good secondary sources. It is prudent to use a mixture of primary and

secondary sources as well as variety of these. Online sources whose academic

authority cannot be ascertained such as Wikipedia, answers.com and other

article mills should be avoided.

9. Plagiarism. Among our list of vices, plagiarism requires special attention.

Plagiarism is unauthorized or improper use of other people’s work in your

paper. Plagiarism can be intentional (where the writer is just trying to be

cheeky) or unintentional (the most common form). In academia, plagiarism is

a serious offence that has ethics as its key component and depending on your

institution’s policy on plagiarism; this offence can have serious consequences

including expulsion from college. That’s the bad news; the good news is that

plagiarism can easily be avoided. With the advent of internet, literacy

materials have become very readily available. This is a good thing but has

unfortunately been abused thus increasing incidences of plagiarism in

academia. There are numerous affective tools in use today to check for

plagiarism in submitted work. Here are a few tips to help you avoid plagiarism

in your paper:

a.   Be original: In research the goal is not for you to repeat and

reorganize what has been done before. Instead you are expected to

shed some new light on your chosen topic. You use other people to

help in the thought process as well as to support your assertions.

Otherwise try to approach your topic with an open and independent

mind.

b.   Paraphrase: Use  your own words  to explain  somebody’s  ideas. You

ares till required to give  credit to this source.

c.   Cite  your  sources properly:  Documenting  your  sources  in

accordance  to the instructions given by your lecturer/tutor will

save you much trouble.